bjoern/pypsa-eur
1
0
Fork 0
Code Issues Pull Requests Actions 1 Packages Projects Releases Wiki Activity

undo changes in sector networks and simplify config

Browse Source
This commit is contained in:
virio-andreyana 2023-09-15 11:55:52 +02:00
parent 3eed341044
commit 7be8cc0773
7 changed files with 114 additions and 154 deletions
Show Stats Download Patch File Download Diff File Expand all files Collapse all files

50
config/config.default.yaml
View File

@ -59,14 +59,9 @@ snapshots:
start: "2013-01-01" start: "2013-01-01"
end: "2014-01-01" end: "2014-01-01"
inclusive: 'left' inclusive: 'left'
resolution: false
snapshot_opts: segmentation: false
average_every_nhours: #representative: false
enable: false
hour: 2
time_segmentation:
enable: false
hour: 4380
# docs in https://pypsa-eur.readthedocs.io/en/latest/configuration.html#enable # docs in https://pypsa-eur.readthedocs.io/en/latest/configuration.html#enable
enable: enable:
@ -81,21 +76,6 @@ enable:
retrieve_natura_raster: true retrieve_natura_raster: true
custom_busmap: false custom_busmap: false
enable_sector:
no_heat_district: false
land_transport: false
heating: false
waste_heat: false
biomass: false
biomass_transport: false
agriculture_machinery: false
industry: false
decentral: false
#wave_energy: false
#wave_energy_factor:
noH2network: false
carbon_budget: false
co2limit_sector: false
# docs in https://pypsa-eur.readthedocs.io/en/latest/configuration.html#co2-budget # docs in https://pypsa-eur.readthedocs.io/en/latest/configuration.html#co2-budget
co2_budget: co2_budget:
@ -107,16 +87,6 @@ co2_budget:
2045: 0.032 2045: 0.032
2050: 0.000 2050: 0.000
co2_budget_opts:
from_descrete_value:
enable: true
from_beta_decay:
enable: false # TODO: move to own rule with sector-opts wildcard?
value: 1
from_exp_decay:
enable: false
value: 1
# docs in https://pypsa-eur.readthedocs.io/en/latest/configuration.html#electricity # docs in https://pypsa-eur.readthedocs.io/en/latest/configuration.html#electricity
electricity: electricity:
voltages: [220., 300., 380.] voltages: [220., 300., 380.]
@ -159,13 +129,6 @@ electricity:
Onshore: [onwind] Onshore: [onwind]
PV: [solar] PV: [solar]
adjust_carrier: # This is the solar+c0.5 thing
enable: false
#solar:
# p_nom_max:
# capital_cost:
# marginal_cost:
autarky: autarky:
enable: false enable: false
by_country: false by_country: false
@ -618,12 +581,9 @@ costs:
battery: 0. battery: 0.
battery inverter: 0. battery inverter: 0.
emission_prices: emission_prices:
enable: false
co2: 0. co2: 0.
co2_monthly_prices: false
enable:
emission_prices: false
monthly_prices: false
# docs in https://pypsa-eur.readthedocs.io/en/latest/configuration.html#clustering # docs in https://pypsa-eur.readthedocs.io/en/latest/configuration.html#clustering
clustering: clustering:

23
rules/build_electricity.smk
View File

@ -20,7 +20,11 @@ if config["enable"].get("prepare_links_p_nom", False):
rule build_electricity_demand: rule build_electricity_demand:
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
countries=config["countries"], countries=config["countries"],
load=config["load"], load=config["load"],
input: input:
@ -61,7 +65,11 @@ rule build_powerplants:
rule base_network: rule base_network:
params: params:
countries=config["countries"], countries=config["countries"],
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
lines=config["lines"], lines=config["lines"],
links=config["links"], links=config["links"],
transformers=config["transformers"], transformers=config["transformers"],
@ -144,7 +152,11 @@ if config["enable"].get("build_cutout", False):
rule build_cutout: rule build_cutout:
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
cutouts=config["atlite"]["cutouts"], cutouts=config["atlite"]["cutouts"],
input: input:
regions_onshore=RESOURCES + "regions_onshore.geojson", regions_onshore=RESOURCES + "regions_onshore.geojson",
@ -470,6 +482,10 @@ rule add_extra_components:
rule prepare_network: rule prepare_network:
params: params:
snapshots={
"resolution":config["snapshots"].get("resolution", False),
"segmentation":config["snapshots"].get("segmentation", False),
},
links=config["links"], links=config["links"],
lines=config["lines"], lines=config["lines"],
co2base=config["electricity"]["co2base"], co2base=config["electricity"]["co2base"],
@ -479,7 +495,6 @@ rule prepare_network:
gaslimit=config["electricity"].get("gaslimit"), gaslimit=config["electricity"].get("gaslimit"),
max_hours=config["electricity"]["max_hours"], max_hours=config["electricity"]["max_hours"],
costs=config["costs"], costs=config["costs"],
snapshot_opts=config.get("snapshot_opts", {}),
autarky=config["electricity"].get("autarky", {}), autarky=config["electricity"].get("autarky", {}),
input: input:
RESOURCES + "networks/elec_s{simpl}_{clusters}_ec.nc", RESOURCES + "networks/elec_s{simpl}_{clusters}_ec.nc",

26
rules/build_sector.smk
View File

@ -141,7 +141,11 @@ if not (config["sector"]["gas_network"] or config["sector"]["H2_retrofit"]):
rule build_heat_demands: rule build_heat_demands:
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
input: input:
pop_layout=RESOURCES + "pop_layout_{scope}.nc", pop_layout=RESOURCES + "pop_layout_{scope}.nc",
regions_onshore=RESOURCES + "regions_onshore_elec_s{simpl}_{clusters}.geojson", regions_onshore=RESOURCES + "regions_onshore_elec_s{simpl}_{clusters}.geojson",
@ -163,7 +167,11 @@ rule build_heat_demands:
rule build_temperature_profiles: rule build_temperature_profiles:
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
input: input:
pop_layout=RESOURCES + "pop_layout_{scope}.nc", pop_layout=RESOURCES + "pop_layout_{scope}.nc",
regions_onshore=RESOURCES + "regions_onshore_elec_s{simpl}_{clusters}.geojson", regions_onshore=RESOURCES + "regions_onshore_elec_s{simpl}_{clusters}.geojson",
@ -215,7 +223,11 @@ rule build_cop_profiles:
rule build_solar_thermal_profiles: rule build_solar_thermal_profiles:
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
solar_thermal=config["solar_thermal"], solar_thermal=config["solar_thermal"],
input: input:
pop_layout=RESOURCES + "pop_layout_{scope}.nc", pop_layout=RESOURCES + "pop_layout_{scope}.nc",
@ -677,7 +689,11 @@ rule build_shipping_demand:
rule build_transport_demand: rule build_transport_demand:
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
sector=config["sector"], sector=config["sector"],
input: input:
clustered_pop_layout=RESOURCES + "pop_layout_elec_s{simpl}_{clusters}.csv", clustered_pop_layout=RESOURCES + "pop_layout_elec_s{simpl}_{clusters}.csv",
@ -705,7 +721,6 @@ rule build_transport_demand:
rule prepare_sector_network: rule prepare_sector_network:
params: params:
enable_sector=config.get("enable_sector", {}),
co2_budget=config["co2_budget"], co2_budget=config["co2_budget"],
conventional_carriers=config["existing_capacities"]["conventional_carriers"], conventional_carriers=config["existing_capacities"]["conventional_carriers"],
foresight=config["foresight"], foresight=config["foresight"],
@ -718,7 +733,6 @@ rule prepare_sector_network:
countries=config["countries"], countries=config["countries"],
emissions_scope=config["energy"]["emissions"], emissions_scope=config["energy"]["emissions"],
eurostat_report_year=config["energy"]["eurostat_report_year"], eurostat_report_year=config["energy"]["eurostat_report_year"],
snapshot_opts=config.get("snapshot_opts", {}),
RDIR=RDIR, RDIR=RDIR,
input: input:
**build_retro_cost_output, **build_retro_cost_output,

6
rules/postprocess.smk
View File

@ -55,7 +55,11 @@ rule make_summary:
params: params:
foresight=config["foresight"], foresight=config["foresight"],
costs=config["costs"], costs=config["costs"],
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
scenario=config["scenario"], scenario=config["scenario"],
RDIR=RDIR, RDIR=RDIR,
input: input:

18
rules/validate.smk
View File

@ -17,7 +17,11 @@ rule build_electricity_production:
The data is used for validation of the optimization results. The data is used for validation of the optimization results.
""" """
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
countries=config["countries"], countries=config["countries"],
output: output:
RESOURCES + "historical_electricity_production.csv", RESOURCES + "historical_electricity_production.csv",
@ -35,7 +39,11 @@ rule build_cross_border_flows:
The data is used for validation of the optimization results. The data is used for validation of the optimization results.
""" """
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
countries=config["countries"], countries=config["countries"],
input: input:
network=RESOURCES + "networks/base.nc", network=RESOURCES + "networks/base.nc",
@ -55,7 +63,11 @@ rule build_electricity_prices:
The data is used for validation of the optimization results. The data is used for validation of the optimization results.
""" """
params: params:
snapshots=config["snapshots"], snapshots={
"start":config["snapshots"]["start"],
"end":config["snapshots"]["end"],
"inclusive":config["snapshots"]["inclusive"],
},
countries=config["countries"], countries=config["countries"],
output: output:
RESOURCES + "historical_electricity_prices.csv", RESOURCES + "historical_electricity_prices.csv",

26
scripts/prepare_network.py
View File

@ -312,24 +312,16 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
set_line_s_max_pu(n, snakemake.params.lines["s_max_pu"]) set_line_s_max_pu(n, snakemake.params.lines["s_max_pu"])
# temporal averaging # temporal averaging
nhours_opts_config = snakemake.params.snapshot_opts.get("average_every_nhours", {}) nhours_config = snakemake.params.snapshots.get("resolution",False)
nhours_enable_config = nhours_opts_config.get("enable", None)
nhours_config = str(nhours_opts_config.get("hour", None)) + "h"
nhours_wildcard = get_opt(opts, r"^\d+h$") nhours_wildcard = get_opt(opts, r"^\d+h$")
if nhours_wildcard is not None or ( if nhours_wildcard is not None or isinstance(nhours_config, str):
nhours_enable_config and nhours_config is not None
):
nhours = nhours_wildcard or nhours_config nhours = nhours_wildcard or nhours_config
n = average_every_nhours(n, nhours) n = average_every_nhours(n, nhours)
# segments with package tsam # segments with package tsam
time_seg_opts_config = snakemake.params.snapshot_opts.get("time_segmentation", {}) time_seg_config = snakemake.params.snapshots.get("segmentation",False)
time_seg_enable_config = nhours_opts_config.get("enable", None)
time_seg_config = str(nhours_opts_config.get("hour", None)) + "seg"
time_seg_wildcard = get_opt(opts, r"^\d+seg$") time_seg_wildcard = get_opt(opts, r"^\d+seg$")
if time_seg_wildcard is not None or ( if time_seg_wildcard is not None or isinstance(time_seg_config, str):
time_seg_enable_config and time_seg_config is not None
):
time_seg = time_seg_wildcard or time_seg_config time_seg = time_seg_wildcard or time_seg_config
solver_name = snakemake.config["solving"]["solver"]["name"] solver_name = snakemake.config["solving"]["solver"]["name"]
n = apply_time_segmentation(n, time_seg, solver_name) n = apply_time_segmentation(n, time_seg, solver_name)
@ -383,7 +375,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
sel = c.df.carrier.str.contains(carrier) sel = c.df.carrier.str.contains(carrier)
c.df.loc[sel, attr] *= factor c.df.loc[sel, attr] *= factor
Ept_config = snakemake.params.costs.get("enable", {}).get("monthly_prices", False) Ept_config = snakemake.params.costs["emission_prices"].get("co2_monthly_prices", False)
for o in opts: for o in opts:
if "Ept" in o or Ept_config: if "Ept" in o or Ept_config:
logger.info( logger.info(
@ -392,15 +384,15 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
add_dynamic_emission_prices(n) add_dynamic_emission_prices(n)
Ept_config = True Ept_config = True
Ep_config = snakemake.params.costs.get("enable", {}).get("emission_prices", False) Ep_config = snakemake.params.costs["emission_prices"].get("enable", False)
Ep_wildcard, co2_wildcard = find_opt(opts, "Ep") Ep_wildcard, co2_wildcard = find_opt(opts, "Ep")
if (Ep_wildcard or Ep_config) and not Ept_config: if (Ep_wildcard or Ep_config) and not Ept_config:
if co2_wildcard is not None: if co2_wildcard is not None:
logger.info("Setting emission prices according to wildcard value.") logger.info("Setting CO2 prices according to wildcard value.")
add_emission_prices(n, dict(co2=co2_wildcard)) add_emission_prices(n, dict(co2=co2_wildcard))
else: else:
logger.info("Setting emission prices according to config value.") logger.info("Setting CO2 prices according to config value.")
add_emission_prices(n, snakemake.params.costs["emission_prices"]) add_emission_prices(n, dict(co2=snakemake.params.costs["emission_prices"]["co2"]))
ll_type, factor = snakemake.wildcards.ll[0], snakemake.wildcards.ll[1:] ll_type, factor = snakemake.wildcards.ll[0], snakemake.wildcards.ll[1:]
set_transmission_limit(n, ll_type, factor, costs, Nyears) set_transmission_limit(n, ll_type, factor, costs, Nyears)

119
scripts/prepare_sector_network.py
View File

@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ import numpy as np
import pandas as pd import pandas as pd
import pypsa import pypsa
import xarray as xr import xarray as xr
from _helpers import generate_periodic_profiles, get_opt, update_config_with_sector_opts from _helpers import generate_periodic_profiles, update_config_with_sector_opts
from add_electricity import calculate_annuity, sanitize_carriers from add_electricity import calculate_annuity, sanitize_carriers
from build_energy_totals import build_co2_totals, build_eea_co2, build_eurostat_co2 from build_energy_totals import build_co2_totals, build_eea_co2, build_eurostat_co2
from networkx.algorithms import complement from networkx.algorithms import complement
@ -161,11 +161,11 @@ spatial = SimpleNamespace()
def emission_sectors_from_opts(opts): def emission_sectors_from_opts(opts):
sectors = ["electricity"] sectors = ["electricity"]
if "T" in opts or opts_config.get("land_transport", False): if "T" in opts:
sectors += ["rail non-elec", "road non-elec"] sectors += ["rail non-elec", "road non-elec"]
if "H" in opts or opts_config.get("heating", False): if "H" in opts:
sectors += ["residential non-elec", "services non-elec"] sectors += ["residential non-elec", "services non-elec"]
if "I" in opts or opts_config.get("industry", False): if "I" in opts:
sectors += [ sectors += [
"industrial non-elec", "industrial non-elec",
"industrial processes", "industrial processes",
@ -174,14 +174,7 @@ def emission_sectors_from_opts(opts):
"domestic navigation", "domestic navigation",
"international navigation", "international navigation",
] ]
if "A" in opts:
heat_and_industry = opts_config.get("industry", False) and opts_config.get(
"heating", False
)
if ("I" in opts and "H" in opts and "A" in opts) or (
heat_and_industry and opts_config.get("agriculture_machinery", False)
):
sectors += ["agriculture"] sectors += ["agriculture"]
return sectors return sectors
@ -3263,45 +3256,27 @@ def set_temporal_aggregation(n, opts, solver_name):
""" """
Aggregate network temporally. Aggregate network temporally.
""" """
# temporal averaging for o in opts:
nhours_opts_config = snakemake.params.snapshot_opts.get("average_every_nhours", {}) # temporal averaging
nhours_enable_config = nhours_opts_config.get("enable", None) m = re.match(r"^\d+h$", o, re.IGNORECASE)
nhours_config = str(nhours_opts_config.get("hour", None)) + "H" if m is not None:
nhours_wildcard = get_opt(opts, r"^\d+h$") n = average_every_nhours(n, m.group(0))
if nhours_wildcard is not None or ( break
nhours_enable_config and nhours_config is not None # representative snapshots
): m = re.match(r"(^\d+)sn$", o, re.IGNORECASE)
nhours = nhours_wildcard or nhours_config if m is not None:
n = average_every_nhours(n, nhours) sn = int(m[1])
return n logger.info(f"Use every {sn} snapshot as representative")
n.set_snapshots(n.snapshots[::sn])
# representative snapshots n.snapshot_weightings *= sn
snapshots_opts_config = snakemake.params.snapshot_opts.get("set_snapshots", {}) break
snapshots_enable_config = snapshots_opts_config.get("enable", None) # segments with package tsam
snapshots_config = snapshots_opts_config.get("hour", None) m = re.match(r"^(\d+)seg$", o, re.IGNORECASE)
snapshots_wildcard = get_opt(opts, r"(^\d+)sn$") if m is not None:
if snapshots_wildcard is not None or ( segments = int(m[1])
snapshots_enable_config and snapshots_config is not None logger.info(f"Use temporal segmentation with {segments} segments")
): n = apply_time_segmentation(n, segments, solver_name=solver_name)
sn = int(snapshots_wildcard[:-2]) or snapshots_config break
logger.info(f"Use every {sn} snapshot as representative")
n.set_snapshots(n.snapshots[::sn])
n.snapshot_weightings *= sn
return n
# segments with package tsam
time_seg_opts_config = snakemake.params.snapshot_opts.get("time_segmentation", {})
time_seg_enable_config = nhours_opts_config.get("enable", None)
time_seg_config = nhours_opts_config.get("hour", None)
time_seg_wildcard = get_opt(opts, r"^(\d+)seg$")
if time_seg_wildcard is not None or (
time_seg_enable_config and time_seg_config is not None
):
segments = int(time_seg_wildcard[:-3]) or time_seg_config
logger.info(f"Use temporal segmentation with {segments} segments")
n = apply_time_segmentation(n, segments, solver_name=solver_name)
return n
return n return n
@ -3328,12 +3303,6 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
opts = snakemake.wildcards.sector_opts.split("-") opts = snakemake.wildcards.sector_opts.split("-")
opts_config = snakemake.params.enable_sector
heat_and_industry = opts_config.get("industry", False) and opts_config.get(
"heating", False
)
investment_year = int(snakemake.wildcards.planning_horizons[-4:]) investment_year = int(snakemake.wildcards.planning_horizons[-4:])
n = pypsa.Network(snakemake.input.network) n = pypsa.Network(snakemake.input.network)
@ -3371,57 +3340,51 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
# TODO merge with opts cost adjustment below # TODO merge with opts cost adjustment below
for o in opts: for o in opts:
if o[:4] == "wave": # TODO: add config wildcard options or depreciated? if o[:4] == "wave":
wave_cost_factor = float(o[4:].replace("p", ".").replace("m", "-")) wave_cost_factor = float(o[4:].replace("p", ".").replace("m", "-"))
logger.info( logger.info(
f"Including wave generators with cost factor of {wave_cost_factor}" f"Including wave generators with cost factor of {wave_cost_factor}"
) )
add_wave(n, wave_cost_factor) add_wave(n, wave_cost_factor)
if o[:4] == "dist": # TODO: add config wildcard options if o[:4] == "dist":
options["electricity_distribution_grid"] = True options["electricity_distribution_grid"] = True
options["electricity_distribution_grid_cost_factor"] = float( options["electricity_distribution_grid_cost_factor"] = float(
o[4:].replace("p", ".").replace("m", "-") o[4:].replace("p", ".").replace("m", "-")
) )
for o in opts: if o == "biomasstransport":
if o == "biomasstransport" or opts_config.get("biomass_transport", False):
options["biomass_transport"] = True options["biomass_transport"] = True
break
if "nodistrict" in opts or opts_config.get("no_heat_district", False): if "nodistrict" in opts:
options["district_heating"]["progress"] = 0.0 options["district_heating"]["progress"] = 0.0
if "T" in opts or opts_config.get("land_transport", False): if "T" in opts:
add_land_transport(n, costs) add_land_transport(n, costs)
if "H" in opts or opts_config.get("heating", False): if "H" in opts:
add_heat(n, costs) add_heat(n, costs)
if "B" in opts or opts_config.get("biomass", False): if "B" in opts:
add_biomass(n, costs) add_biomass(n, costs)
if options["ammonia"]: if options["ammonia"]:
add_ammonia(n, costs) add_ammonia(n, costs)
if "I" in opts or opts_config.get("industry", False): if "I" in opts:
add_industry(n, costs) add_industry(n, costs)
if ("I" in opts and "H" in opts) or ( if "I" in opts and "H" in opts:
heat_and_industry and opts_config.get("waste_heat", False)
):
add_waste_heat(n) add_waste_heat(n)
if ("I" in opts and "H" in opts and "A" in opts) or ( if "A" in opts: # requires H and I
heat_and_industry and opts_config.get("agriculture_machinery", False)
): # requires H and I
add_agriculture(n, costs) add_agriculture(n, costs)
if options["dac"]: if options["dac"]:
add_dac(n, costs) add_dac(n, costs)
if "decentral" in opts or opts_config.get("decentral", False): if "decentral" in opts:
decentral(n) decentral(n)
if "noH2network" in opts or opts_config.get("noH2network", False): if "noH2network" in opts:
remove_h2_network(n) remove_h2_network(n)
if options["co2network"]: if options["co2network"]:
@ -3436,7 +3399,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
limit_type = "config" limit_type = "config"
limit = get(snakemake.params.co2_budget, investment_year) limit = get(snakemake.params.co2_budget, investment_year)
for o in opts: for o in opts:
if "cb" not in o or opts_config.get("carbon_budget", False) is False: if "cb" not in o:
continue continue
limit_type = "carbon budget" limit_type = "carbon budget"
fn = "results/" + snakemake.params.RDIR + "csvs/carbon_budget_distribution.csv" fn = "results/" + snakemake.params.RDIR + "csvs/carbon_budget_distribution.csv"
@ -3456,7 +3419,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
limit = co2_cap.loc[investment_year] limit = co2_cap.loc[investment_year]
break break
for o in opts: for o in opts:
if "Co2L" not in o or opts_config.get("co2limit_sector", False) is False: if "Co2L" not in o:
continue continue
limit_type = "wildcard" limit_type = "wildcard"
limit = o[o.find("Co2L") + 4 :] limit = o[o.find("Co2L") + 4 :]
@ -3465,7 +3428,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
logger.info(f"Add CO2 limit from {limit_type}") logger.info(f"Add CO2 limit from {limit_type}")
add_co2limit(n, nyears, limit) add_co2limit(n, nyears, limit)
for o in opts: # TODO: add config wildcard options or depreciated? for o in opts:
if not o[:10] == "linemaxext": if not o[:10] == "linemaxext":
continue continue
maxext = float(o[10:]) * 1e3 maxext = float(o[10:]) * 1e3